The Media's Portrayal of Africa Negatively Affects People's Views of the Continent

Often referred to as "The Dark Continent," Africa's negative portrayal in the media has reinforced stereotypes and negative views. The media's role as gatekeeper is very evident in their coverage of Africa; as they have great control over the information that gets covered,  thus influencing people's views and perceptions. Because of the media's surveillance function, the angle and framing of stories play a large role in the way the audience perceives the issues. The surveillance function makes the media distributors of information, but  too many negative stories about an issue can skew the audience's perception. Overwhelming stories of disaster and crime, have the potential to affect people's views of society and what is normal.  The prevalence of negative content when it comes to the reporting of Africa by the media, has fueled stereotypes and afro-pessimism.


Origins of Afro-Pessimism
It is important to understand where afro-pessimism stems from, in the discussion of the media's portrayal of Africa. Afro-pessimism is essentially the skepticism of the progress of Africa. It includes notions that Africa is a hopeless and destitute continent, that will be unable to overcome the many challenges it faces. 

According to Africanist scholar Rod Chavis, afro-pessimism dates back to pre-colonial times, when Europeans enslaved millions of Africans and exploited them for labor. Europeans characterized Africans as uncivilized barbaric people, who they viewed as inferior. They derived this notion on the basis that the people they encountered in Africa were different from them. This perception has been prevalent throughout history, and has shaped stereotypes and negative perceptions of Africa.

The Media's Role in Fueling Afro-Pessimism
Much of the media's coverage of Africa consists of events such as famine, disease outbreaks, war, poverty, and other negative aspects. The constant reporting of events of this nature by the media, has played a critical role in shaping people's perception of the continent. They ultimately reinforce existing afro-pessimistic ideas and stereotypes. 
It is true that Africa is faced with issues of famine and poverty, but western media employs techniques to perpetuate beliefs that Africa is solely comprised of those disastrous aspects. 

Danielle Mezzana, delves into the issues of the portrayal of Africa in the media, in her research for Harvard University, that compiles works of many scholars studying this issue. Mezzana cites a study done by Charles Chavis in 1998, that highlight the tactics western media outlets employ to perpetuate negative views of Africa. Chavis boils down the tactics western media outlets use to three components: selection/omission of information, decontextualization, and dramatization.

Omission
When they report on Africa, the media tends to focus specifically on negative aspects, which results in the omission of important information. This behavior by the media frames issues in negative way, which in turn fuels afro-pessimistic views. When they report on disasters or wars, the media uses the tactic of selection to frame the story in a particular manner. This is problematic in many ways, because by omitting important information the media is being unfair in their reporting. They are having an adverse impact on the audience's perception of Africa, and they are a reinforcing the prevalent negative views. Karyn Rothmyer's research found that between September and May of 2010, the ten most read newspapers in the US, had 245 stories about poverty in Africa, but only five had stories about gross domestic product growth. Because these are the most read newspapers, they have credibility with the public which means that they have major impacts on shaping the public's views of Africa.

The media is so intent on highlighting negative aspects of Africa, that they often do not include stories of African prosperity and growth. According to the Bureau of Economic Research, In 2010 the GDP in Africa rose and poverty decreased, yet there were only five articles by major newspapers that discussed this. The media's focus on depicting Africa in a negative light results in the omission of positive things that are happening in Africa.

Decontextualization
Western media also employs the tactic of decontextualization information when reporting on Africa. They fail to provide the context of the information gathered, which has an affect on how the information is presented and perceived. Information is often presented without any historical, social, economic, or political background that would help the audience fully understand the story. Context plays key role in the complete reporting of a story, but since western media fails to provide any background information, the audience is not able to view the full picture of the story. The inability to fully understand the story negatively causes the audience to cling on to their negative views of Africa. 

Dramatization

Map Highlighting True Size of Africa

Western media also dramatizes and exaggerates stories of events in Africa, which reinforce stereotypes and afro-pessimism. This tactic is related to omission, where the media focuses on an area which leads to the omission of important information. When reporting on Africa, the media tends to exaggerate the severity of events to a degree. Instead of finding a balance between highlighting the event without undermining its severity, and dramatizing it to make it seem bigger than it is, the media tends to do the latter, and dramatize events. By reporting from areas that are poverty ridden, and fit the stereotypes people have of Africa, the media exaggerates the economic situation. The media also exaggerates in terms of trying to characterize Africa as one big country, with one group of people living in it. Africa is a continent comprised of 54 countries with people of diverse cultures and ethnicities. The exaggeration of the oneness of Africa by the media fuels the audience's tendency to group Africans together into one category.

These tactics are readily employed by western media outlets when they report on Africa. They are extremely detrimental in presenting an accurate and fair image of Africa. Audiences are constantly seeing these stereotypes presented by the media, which reinforces them in their minds, and fuels afro-pessimism.

NGOs Benefit From Negative Portrayal Africa
Famine, poverty, civil conflict, hunger, and poverty are all ongoing issues in Africa, so media outlets argue that it is their role to address and highlight these issues. Kathryn Rothmyer found that the beneficiaries of the negative portrayal of Africa is ultimately Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) who provide aid to many African countries. These organizations are dependent on funds from individuals and other organizations, so it is crucial for them to show that there is a need in order to raise funds. In order to do this, they often present the familiar images of starving children covered in flies, and mothers caring for their malnourished children. These images are meant to appeal emotionally to people, to motivate them to donate to the organization. 

Although the NGOs are attempting to improve situations for people, their dependence on images that highlight people in harsh conditions, contribute to the media's negative portrayal of Africa. Western audiences see the image of Africa presented to them by NGOs, that use negative images to raise funds, and form perceptions based on them. Since the NGOs are trying to appeal to people, their images often depict people in severe conditions, which leads the audience to believe that that is the condition of majority of Africans. 

A journalist for the Gambian newspaper Forayaa, Mariama Demba shares her opinion on the necessity to show harsh conditions in Africa to generate funds for charity organizations. 
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The Africa They Never Show You
Due to the overwhelming negative stories presented about Africa, it is often hard for people to see the beauty in the continent. Africa is a continent rich in culture and natural resources, but western media fails to present this side of Africa. 

Underwater Hotel in Tanzania

According to The World Bank, tourism in Africa increased in 2013, making it competitive with other popular tourist destinations. Tourism is the fastest growing part of the world economy, so by developing their tourists attractions, African countries can enjoy the benefits tourism will have on their economies. Tourists travel to Africa to experience the rich culture, explore the beautiful landscapes, and discover historical attractions. 

Innovative ideas in developing tourism can be seen throughout Africa. One specific example of this would be the Manta Resort in Tanzania, which is an underwater hotel. This hotel gives people a very unique experience of Africa, as they are submerged underwater, and are literally "sleeping with the fishes." Innovative ideas like these attract visitors to Africa, and can help in providing a more positive image of the continent.

Mariama Demba suggests topics and issues western media outlets can highlight in order to present a more fair representation of Africa.


The Media is not Balanced nor Fair in their Coverage of Africa
Although the Africa s plagued with problems such as famine, poverty, and war, the media's sole focus on reporting these problems presents the audience with a distorted view of Africa. There are very few attempts by the media to present stories of positivity and growth in Africa, so the public forms their views of the continent based on the overwhelming negative reports by western media. Instead of intending to perpetuate existing stereotypes, the media should balance out negative stories with stories that highlight positive things that are happening in Africa. Afro-pessimis is deep rooted in society's views of Africa as a hopeless destitute land, and the media only fuels it by focusing on portraying Africa negatively. 

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The Media's Portrayal of Africa Affects People's View of the Continent

(Brief Background Info): The media plays a large role in informing people about ongoing issues. Their role as gatekeepers is very visible when it comes to their coverage of Africa; as they have great control over the information that gets covered, thus influencing people's views and perception. Because of the media's surveillance function, the angle and framing of stories play a large role in the way the audience perceives the issues. Too many negative stories about an issue can skew the audience's perception. The prevalence of negative content when it comes to the reporting of Africa, has fueled stereotypes and afro-pessimism.

The Media's Role in Fueling Afro-Pessimism
*Definition of Afro-Pessimism*
1. Discuss the media's focus on negative aspects of Africa.

•    Famine
•    Poverty
•    Disease (especially HIV/AIDS)
•    Political Corruption/War

2. Cite study from Harvard
When covering Africa, the media:

• Omits information
• Frame subject to fuel negative views
• Generalize & over exaggerate

Discuss the effects this has on people's views of Africa

*Picture of the portrayal of Africa*

Their Job is to Cover Facts

*Present the other side - balance & fairness*

1. Because of the Surveillance function, the media's role is to shed light on issues 

• Famine, poverty, and conflict are all ongoing issues in Africa, so the media is not wrong for covering them.

2. *Discuss "Freedom" article: the media's coverage of negative issues (famine & poverty) foster relief efforts, and persuade people to donate to charities/NGOs.

*insert picture of relief effort donations*

The View of African Journalists

*BBC clip of Sierra Leonian journalists' efforts to improve image of Africa*

1. Discuss UN article about the attempts to improve Africa's image

2. Expert Interview

*Insert positive Picture of Africa*

Conclusion: The Media is not Balanced nor Fair in their Coverage of Africa

Although Africa is plagues with problems, the media's focus on these problems fuel negative views. They fail to highlight positive aspects of Africa, which is problematic in shaping people's views of Africa; it fuels afro-pessimism. 

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Media Companies and Individuals Seek to Protect their Digital Media Content by using Digital Watermarks

Introduction: New Legal Challenges 

With the increased digitalization of mass communication, legal systems have to find new and creative ways to tackle issues of copyright infringement. Because there are outlets on the internet that allow for files to be shared to a mass audience, media companies and individuals are seeking ways to protect their digital content. Digital Rights Management (DRM) is one example of this; it includes finding technologies that limit how and where copyrighted digital material can be shared. One of the technologies
that are included in DRM is digital watermarking. 

Digital Watermarks and how they Work

Digital watermarks are codes (invisible or sometimes visible) that are encrypted into a digital medium. This can include media such as text documents, audio, images, and videos. The code is unique to that particular medium, which enables the distributor to track the distribution of the content. According to Digimarc, a digital watermarking company,  the goal of digital watermarking is to:

1. Protect, identify, and track media content.
2. Authenticate media content
3. Discourage piracy and theft
4. Monitor how content is distributed

Ultimately the purpose of watermarks are to authenticate and identify media content. This is done by encrypting a unique code to the medium, which connects it to the original distributor or source. This proves ownership of the content beyond any doubts, and it also allows for the owner of the content to track the medium and monitor illicit use. Media companies like the idea of this, because it enables them to protect their content, and deal with people who illegally distribute it.

Requirements of Digital Watermarks

In order for digital watermarks to serve their purpose, they have to meet certain requirements. These requirements enable them to fulfill their intended purpose. According to Alexander Huber, digital watermarks must:

1. Be difficult or impossible to remove without destroying original content.
2. Survive image modification techniques, such as cropping, resizing, etc.
3. Not affect the user's experience.
4. Be detectable by the appropriate authorities.

These are the basic requirements digital watermarks must adhere to.  

Benefits of Digital Watermarks

Watermarking can have benefits for individuals too, not only media companies. One obvious benefit is that it protects the individual by proving ownership of the media, which serves as a protection against theft and illicit use. Photographers often use digital watermarks to protect their images from being illegally distributed. Digimarc is a company that offers a variety of watermarking services to individuals who wish to protect their digital media. On the website individuals, can upload the content they wish to protect, and then encrypt a watermark onto it. This enables them to monitor the distribution of their content, and to pursue legal action against people who illicitly use their content.

Implications of Watermarks

Although the goal is to protect their digital media, watermarking can have implications on both individuals and media companies. There are many cases where advanced hackers have been able to decode encrypted watermark codes, thus having full access to the protected media. Instances like these prove that digital watermarks are not always effective in protecting digital media. Hackers are also sometimes able create counterfeit watermark codes of a particular medium. This is very problematic because it raises doubts regarding the ownership of the material, and it enables thieves to freely distribute the protected content.

There are also instances of watermarking restricting individuals' access to digital media they purchased. Sometimes false positives occur, which tag media that an individual purchased, such as audio files or software, as unauthorized. This can happen if an individual gets a new computer and registers it in a different name. It can also happen if the content is erased on the hard disk of the computer. Although the individual has purchased that content, the watermark restricts them from being able to obtain the content because it does not recognize that particular computer.

Instances such as these highlight flaws in watermarking, and the implications they have on individuals and media companies.

Conclusion: The Effectiveness of Digital Watermarks

With the widespread use and availability of digital media, it is understandable that people are concerned about protecting their digital content. The use of watermarks can be beneficial in protecting particular digital media. The owner's  ability to trace the distribution of their content, can be beneficial if they wish to take legal actions against thieves; in this sense watermarks are useful. But the potential implications and restrictions of watermarks overshadow the benefits. Watermarks can be frustrating to consumers who change the medium of which they are obtaining the watermarked content they purchased. Like previously mentioned, it can make it difficult or completely restrict them from accessing digital content. I believe that media companies and individuals alike, have the right to be concerned about the distribution of their digital media content. This being said, there are limitations with watermarks that inhibit them from being as effective as intended. This is why I believe that companies and individuals should not solely rely on digital watermarks to protect their content. 

Functions of Mass Communication Affect how we Interpret Media

According to the book Converging Media: A New Look Into Mass Communication, the functions of mass communication can be divided into four categories: surveillance, correlation, cultural transmission, and entertainment. These functions play a big role in shaping the media we see today.

Surveillance is a function that is associated with journalism, which provides information about ongoing local or global issues and events. The viewpoint of the media outlet delivering the news can have a major impact on the audience's understanding and interpretation of the news. The media outlet's view will affect the way in which they deliver news,which in turn affects the way the audience interprets the news.

This ABC news story about the hunger crisis in West Africa fits the description of a surveillance function of mass communication. It is presented by journalists who are informing the audience about the widespread hunger crisis in western Africa, especially in the country of Niger. Surveillance can also skew the audience's views of certain issues. Most western media reports on Africa depict it as a hopeless, corrupt, and disease ridden continent. While Africa does have its problems, it is also a beautiful continent with a plethora of resources, but that side never gets portrayed by the media. News reports like this ABC one only fuel the afro-pessimitic view that westerners have.

The next function of mass communication is correlation. Correlation deals with how how the media interprets and assigns meaning to issues, to help people see how their views align with public opinion.    

Powerful advertisements can be great examples of correlation. In the ad shown above, the gun is loaded with cigarettes instead of bullets, which is supposed to be a metaphor highlighting the dangers of smoking cigarettes. This ad is an example of the correlative function of media, because the media has expressed a negative view of smoking, and it is up to the audience to determine whether their views are aligned with the media's. Guns are seen as dangerous weapons that many people fear. So drawing a comparison between guns and cigarettes can be very influential in discouraging people from smoking.

The entertainment function of media consists of a combination of the other functions, along with the sole purpose of entertaining the audience.

Today, audiences have many sources of entertainment media. Ranging from comic books to reality television shows. One criticism of the entertainment function of mass communication, is that it tends to perpetuate existing stereotypes of certain groups. This can be seen in the popular reality TV show Love and Hip Hop Atlanta, which has been criticized for portraying black people negatively. The show, which is made up of an all black cast, depicts blacks as people who are uneducated, unable to compose themselves in public, violent, and irrational. This show does not help in changing the image of black people, rather it reinforces existing stereotypes.

The functions of mass communication can either consciously or subconsciously have significant affects on how people view matters portrayed by the media. Which is why they play an important role in the media today.

Not Possible to be Addicted to Digital Media- It Is Used for Comfort and Convenience

According to the American Psychological Association, addiction is defined as: "a condition in which the body must have a drug to avoid physical and psychological withdrawal symptoms." Under these pretenses, I do not believe it is possible to be addicted to media. There is an increase in the presence of technology in classrooms and other areas. Because of this increased presence, and the convenience of technology, it may seem like people are dependent on technology to complete certain tasks. It is easy for people to label this increased usage of technology as an addiction, but it does not fall into that category according to the true definition of addiction. However, technology does pose a potential threat to real social interaction. Because of the many social media outlets that are widely available, face-to-face interaction can potentially become a secondary tool of communication. Because it is so easy for people to send quick instant messages, people often forget the importance of face-to-face communication.

As it pertains to my own usage of digital media, I tend to rely on digital media to relieve my boredom. I have social media accounts, but I value face-to-face conversation. That is why I prefer to call someone and speaking to them on the phone, rather than texting them. Nowadays, it is very common to see people taking notes on their laptops during lectures. I myself am not a big fan of this trend; I understand the convenience of this, but I prefer to take notes the old fashion way: with a pen and paper. I see too many instances where people on their laptops are distracted by other things, which is why I prefer to leave my laptop at home and take notes the traditional way. I would like to see professor utilize a program I had in high school, which restricted what websites students could visit during class time. This would limit distractions and make sure students are using their laptops for the right purpose. Because people who are not doing the right thing in class can potentially affect other students' ability to concentrate. 

Effects of Interactive Media are Greater than those of Passive Media

In today's society we are surrounded by a wide array of media. Whether it be interactive medium- like video games, or more passive medium like a newspaper. Our exposure and interactions with these types of media may be different, but they all have an effect on us- even if it is minuscule. This being said; some mediums have greater effects on their audience/users than others. Interactive media where the audience is directly responding and acting with the medium, have greater effects on the audience than passive mediums.

Interactive media's ability to greatly affect its audience, can be attributed to the fact that unlike passive media, the audience of interactive media have a certain degree of control. This unique property enables interactive media to have such extensive effects on its audience. The topic of framing is discussed on page 438, of the book Converging Media: A New Introduction to Mass Communication. We group things in categories according to our schema in order to give them valuable meaning. Framing also relates to how we view the media we are being exposed to, and the point of view it is being told from. For example: in a passive medium like a news article, the author can frame the story in a skewed manner. This can make people be skeptical of such mediums, because they are aware that they are framed. In an interactive medium like a video game however, it is harder for the audience to see the framing of the medium, so they are not that skeptical.

There are also negative aspects to interactive media's ability to greatly affect its audience. This becomes evident when examining the ways in which violent video games affect children. Video games are often blamed for glamorizing violence, and thus encouraging kids to become violent. In his article in CBS News: Violence in Video Games Make Kids Violent, Study Suggests, Ryan Jaslow discusses the negative impacts of violent video games on children. The article cites numerous studies that conclude that children who frequently play violent video games become violent. Children apply what they see in the games in their real lives, thus engaging in violent behaviors. With the constant improvements in the graphics of video games, they are becoming increasingly realistic, which can make people feel like concepts in the game are applicable to their everyday lives. This highlights how greatly interactive media can affect its audience.